Planning

If everyone in a class was at the same instructional level, and if schools had clearly prescribed goals and instructional objectives that were the same for all students, then teaching would consist simply of doing the same things with everybody, being certain to do them in the right order and at the right time. Of course, all students are not alike and the goals, objectives, or methods for teaching and learning are not the same for everybody. This is why planning is a key component of effective teaching.

Effective instruction requires planning. This means that effective teachers make decisions before they start teaching. They make decisions about what content to present, about what materials or activities to use and how to present the content, and about how to encourage students to approach learning in positive ways. There are three principles of effective planning:

Decide what to teach.
Decide how to teach.
Communicate realistic expectations.

Decide what to teach involves accurate assessment of student characteristics (e.g., skill levels, motivation), task characteristics (e.g., sequence, cognitive demands), and classroom characteristics (e.g., instructional groupings, materials). Using this information, effective teachers plan their instruction to produce logical lessons that best match student, task, and classroom characteristics to the instructional demands of the content they are teaching. The goal when deciding what to teach is accurately determining the appropriate content to present based on what is known about individual students and their learning needs.

Decide how to teach involves making decisions about instructional performance standards, methods and materials, and instructional pace. Based on information available for students in their classes, effective teachers set instructional goals and performance standards. They select instructional methods, including grouping structures and pace, and materials to help them achieve their goals. And, they identify monitoring procedures that will assist in determining the extent to which their instruction is matching learner skills with intended outcomes. The goal of effective teachers in deciding how to teach is to find the best way to present the desired instructional content.

Communicate realistic expectations means being sure that students understand the goals, objectives, and standards of instruction, getting students to be active and involved learners, and getting them to understand the consequences of success and failure. Effective teachers know that communicating realistic expectations is an important part of planning because active student engagement and motivation have long been seen as critical parts of learning. Trying to achieve goals, objectives, or standards that are too high or too low ca uses frustration or boredom, and, too often, misbehavior. The goal in communicating realistic expectations is to ensure that “everybody is on the same instructional page” and that nobody’s needs are ignored, overlooked, or missed.

These three planning principles are addressed in this course. An overview is provided for each, illustrating how it relates to effective planning, and describing a set of specific strategies that effective teachers use when focusing it. The main content of the course is a set of tactics that illustrate specific ways to actively address each principle and strategy to provide effective instruction.

Component	Principle	Strategy
PLANNING	1. Decide What to Teach	Assess to Identify Gaps in Performance Establish Logical Sequences of Instruction Consider Contextual Variables
	2. Decide How to Teach	Set Instructional Goals Establish Performance Standards Choose Instructional Methods and Materials Establish Grouping Structures Pace Instruction Appropriately Monitor Performance and Adjust Instruction
	3. Communicate Realistic Expectations	Frequently Review Goals, Objectives, and Standards Teach Students to Be Active, Involved Learners Teach Students Consequences of Performance

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1. Decide What to Teach

Assess to Identify Gaps in Performance

Results of learning are improved when instruction is matched to students’ ability. Effective instruction moves students from current levels of instruction to desired levels based on age and grade expectations.

Establish Logical Sequences of Instruction

Complex skills are learned by teaching sub-skills in a sequence, but there is nearly always more than one way to learn a skill.

Consider Contextual Variables

Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Each student brings to the instructional environment a set of individual characteristics and a learning history. And, each student responds differently to teachers’ instructional efforts.

2. Decide How to Teach

Set Instructional Goals

Curriculum is defined as a set of goals that reflect this content. Effective teachers map out both the goals of instruction as well as the specific skills or behaviors they want students to acquire and demonstrate.

Establish Performance Standards

In the world of educational accountability and standards, the primary goal for all of us is to improve our schools. Although this has most often been viewed in a national perspective, many educators are beginning to see this as a challenge at the local school level.

Choose Instructional Methods and Materials

Once the instructional standards, goals, and objectives are specified, instructional methods and materials must be planned. The selection of these materials should align with the goals and objectives written for the instructional content to be learned.

Establish Grouping Structures

Effective teachers groups students for instruction and take into account student characteristics, task demands (types of knowledge-factual, conceptual, strategic), proficiency levels (accuracy, mastery, automaticity), and the content of instruction. Often teachers use different grouping arrangements for different types or domains of instruction (e.g., academic, social).

Pace Instruction Appropriately

Optimal pacing is evident when the amount of content is maximized without frustrating the learner. An efficient pace keeps the student actively involved, with little time spent waiting for the teacher to locate materials or for another student to respond.

Monitor Performance and Adjust Instruction

Effective teachers keep an accurate record of students’ progress and compare progress of individual students to that of others in their class or grade. They use these data to decide the extent to which instruction is working, and whether or not it makes good sense to change what is being done.

3. Communicate Realistic Expectations

Frequently Review Goals, Objectives, and Standards

Effective teachers communicate clearly to students what they are expected to do and to what level of proficiency. Students need to know what is to be done, under what conditions, and at what level of performance or standard. This information should be shared at the start of every lesson, unit of instruction, or any other learning activity.

Teach Students to Be Active, Involved Learners

Students who are actively engaged in instruction profit more than those who are not. Effective teachers have a stockpile of techniques they use to get students actively engaged in the instructional process.

Teach Students Consequences of Performance

Effective teachers set clear and precise expectations and consequences for both appropriate and inappropriate classroom behavior.